Common Era

Common Era, abbreviated as CE, is a designation for the world's most commonly used year-numbering system. Astronomical Almanac -- Online. (2009). United States Naval Observatory. s.v. calendar, Gregorian in Glossary. The numbering of years using Common Era notation is identical to the numbering used with Anno Domini (BC/AD) notation, being the current year in both notations and neither using a year zero. Two separate systems that also do not use religious titles, the astronomical system and the ISO 8601 standard do use a year zero. The year 1 BCE (identical to the year 1 BC) is represented as 0 in the astronomical system, and as 0000 in ISO 8601. Presently, ISO 8601 dating requires usage of the Gregorian calendar for all dates, however; whereas astronomical dating and Common Era dating allow usage of the Julian calendar for dates before 1582 CE. Common Era is also known as Christian Era Dictionaries: Common Era and Christian Era used interchangeably

// END refs for meanings & alternate synonyms as Christian Era --> and Current Era, // BEGIN refs for meanings & alternate synonyms as Current Era -->Sources supporting interchangeabilty with Current Era

with all three expressions abbreviated as CE.Dictionaries: CE

• "ce" – WP editorial note: the source does not mention any suffix like " CE" for entry "ce" as shown for entry "c.e.".

// END CE refs --> (Christian Era is, however, also abbreviated AD, for Anno Domini.Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus. (American edition) (1997). New York: Oxford University Press. s.v. A.D. ) Dates before the year 1 CE are indicated by the usage of BCE, short for "Before the Common Era", "Before the Christian Era", or "Before the Current Era". // BEGIN BCE refs... -->Dictionaries: BCE

• "bce" – WP editorial note: the source does not mention any suffix like " BCE" for entry "bce" as shown for entry "b.c.e.".

// END BCE refs ---> Both the BCE/CE and BC/AD notations are based on a sixth-century estimate for the year in which Jesus was conceived or born, with the common era designation originating among Christians in Europe at least as early as 1615 (at first in Latin). The Gregorian calendar, and the year-numbering system associated with it, is the calendar system with most widespread usage in the world today. For decades, it has been the de facto global standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations and the Universal Postal Union. There are many names in many languages used to designate this year-numbering system that originated in Western Europe. Common Era notation has been adopted in several non-Christian cultures, by many scholars in religious studies and other academic fields, |title=History of the World Christian Movement |first=Dale T. |last=Irvin |coauthors=Sunquist, Scott |year=2001 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |isbn=0567088669 |page=xi |quote=The influence of western culture and scholarship upon the rest of the world in turn led to this system of dating becoming the most widely used one across the globe today. Many scholars in historical and religious studies in the West in recent years have sought to lessen the explicitly Christian meaning of this system without abandoning the usefulness of a single, common, global form of dating. For this reason the terms common era and before the common era, abbreviated as CE and BCE, have grown in popularity as designations. The terms are meant, in deference to non-Christians, to soften the explicit theological claims made by the older Latin terminology, while at the same time providing continuity with earlier generations of mostly western Christian historical research. }} |title=Get Set for Religious Studies |first=Dominic |last=Corrywright |coauthors=Morgan, Peggy |year=2006 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=074862032X |page=18 |quote=Also note where AD (from the Latin 'in the year of our Lord') and BC (before Christ) are used in datings, for although the numerical calculation of this system is now the international convention, the terminology used in religious studies is CE (common era) and BCE (before the common era), which are more neutrally descriptive terms }} and by others wishing to be sensitive to non-Christians, . because Common Era does not explicitly make use of religious titles for Jesus, such as Christ and Lord, which are used in the BC/AD notation.Anno Domini (which means in the year of the/our Lord) Translated as "in the year of (Our) Lord" in Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L, (2003), The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford University Press, 782. |quote=anno aerae nostrae vulgaris |author= Johannes Kepler |title=Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: ex epistolis doctissimorum aliquot virorum & suis mutuis, quibus examinantur tempora nobilissima: 1. Herodis Herodiadumque, 2. baptismi & ministerii Christi annorum non plus 2 1/4, 3. passionis, mortis et resurrectionis Dn. N. Iesu Christi, anno aerae nostrae vulgaris 31. non, ut vulgo 33., 4. belli Iudaici, quo funerata fuit cum Ierosolymis & Templo Synagoga Iudaica, sublatumque Vetus Testamentum. Inter alia & commentarius in locum Epiphanii obscurissimum de cyclo veteri Iudaeorum. |publisher=Francofurti : Tampach |language=Latin |year=1615 }} Kepler uses it again in a 1617 table of ephemerides. |title=Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium, ab anno vulgaris aerae MDCXVII -XXXVI... |quote=Part 3 has title: Tomi L Ephemeridvm Ioannis Kepleri pars tertia, complexa annos à M.DC.XXIX. in M.DC.XXXVI. In quibus & tabb. Rudolphi jam perfectis, et sociâ operâ clariss. viri dn. Iacobi Bartschii ... Impressa Sagani Silesiorvm, in typographeio Ducali, svmptibvs avthoris, anno M.DC.XXX. |author= Johannes Kepler, Jakob Bartsch |publisher=Johannes Plancus |year=1617 }}

• Translation of title (per 1635 English edition): New Ephemerids for the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeeres of the Vulgar Era 1617–1636

A 1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English - so far, the earliest-found usage of Vulgar Era in English. |title=Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633... |author=Johann Kepler, Adriaan Vlacq |published=1635 }}

• A much later instance in Latin is in a 1762 book by Joanne Laurentio Berti, entitled Ecclesiasticae historiae breviarium. Editio, post secundam venetam. Pars prima quae compectitur Chronologiae Rudimenta. Pars secunda quae progreditur usque ad unnum Vulgaris Aera; See book title at http://www.antiqbook.de/boox/haker/207860.shtml - see Catholic Encyclopedia article on its author at http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02522a.htm

---> A 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes "Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra, 6". |title=The Harmony of the Evangelists |editor=John LeClerc |authorlink= John LeClerc |location=London |publisher=Sam Buckley |digitized=21 February 2007 |page=5 |year=1701 |quote=Before Christ according to the Vulgar AEra, 6 }} A 1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, "before the beginning of the vulgar æra, by which we now compute the years from his incarnation." |title=The Old and New Testament Connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations |author=Humphrey Prideaux, D.D. |authorlink=Humphrey Prideaux |publisher=D. Schaw & Co. |location=Edinburgh |original=from Oxford University Press |quote=This happened in the seventh year after the building of Rome, and in the second year of the eighth Olympiad, which was the seven hundred forty-seventh year before Christ, i. e. before the beginning of the vulgar æra, by which we now compute the years from his incarnation. |page=1 |volume=1 |year=1716 |reprint=1799 (1716 edition not online, 1749 online is Vol 2) }} Merriam Webster accepts the date of 1716, but does not give the source. A 1796 book uses the term "vulgar era of the nativity".{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nK6IPj-Wk-kC&pg=PA10&dq=%22vulgar+era+of+the+NATIVITY%22 |title="vulgar era of the nativity" (1796) |original=from the University of Michigan |digitized=13 March 2006 |accessdate=18 December 2007 }} {{cite book |title=Analysis of Researches Into the Origin and Progress of Historical Time, from the Creation to ... |author=Rev. Robert Walker, Isaac Newton, Thomas Falconer |published=1796 |publisher=T. Cadell Jr. and W. Davies |page=10 |location=London |quote=Dionysius the Little brought the vulgar era of the nativity too low by four years. }} The first so-far-discovered usage of "Christian Era" is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the title page of a 1584 theology book. |title=De Eucharistica controuersia, capita doctrinae theologicae de quibus mandatu, illustrissimi principis ac domini, D. Iohannis Casimiri, Comites Palatini ad Rhenum, Ducis Bauariae, tutoris & administratoris Electoralis Palatinatus, octonis publicis disputationibus (quarum prima est habita 4 Apr. anno aerae christianae 1584, Marco Beumlero respondente) praeses Iohannes Iacobus Grynaeus, orthodoxae fidei rationem interrogantibus placidè reddidit ; accessit eiusdem Iohannis Iacobi Grynaeus synopsis orationis, quam de disputationis euentu, congressione nona, quae indicit in 15 Aprilis, publicè habuit. |first=Johann Jacob |last=Grynaeus |authorlink=Johann Jakob Grynaeus |coauthors=Beumler, Marcus |type=Microform |language=Latin |location=Heidelbergae |publisher=Typis Iacobi Mylij |year=1584 |edition=Editio tertia |topic=Irenical theology |oclc=123471534 |quote=4 Apr. anno aerae christianae 1584 }} In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac. |title=Speculum uranicum, anni æræ Christianæ, 1649, or, An almanack and prognosication for the year of our Lord, 1649 being the first from bissextile or leap-year, and from the creation of the world 5598, wherein is contained many useful, pleasant and necessary observations, and predictions ... : calculated (according to art) for the meridian and latitude of the ancient borrough town of Stamford in Lincolnshire ... and without sensible errour may serve the 3. kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. |last=WING |first=Vincent |year=1649 |location=London |publisher=J.L. for the Company of Stationers |quote=anni æræ Christianæ, 1649 }} A 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of "Christian Era". |title=A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester |author=Sliter, Robert |year=1652 |publisher=Printed for the Company of Stationers |location=London }} The English phrase "common Era" appears at least as early as 1708, and in a 1715 book on astronomy is used interchangeably with "Christian Era" and "Vulgar Era". A 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. In this case, their refers to the Jews. Common era and vulgar era are used as synonyms in 1770, in a translation of a book originally written in German.{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gBETAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA105&dq=%22Common+Era%22+%22vulgar+Era%22+date:1-1800 |title=common era and vulgar era as synonyms in English (1770) |accessdate=5 January 2008 }} {{cite book |last=Hooper |first=William |coauthors=Bielfeld, Jacob Friedrich |title=The Elements of Universal Eurdition (v. 2) |year=1770 |publisher=G. Scott, printer, for J Robson, bookseller in New-Bond Street, and B. Law in Ave-Mary Lane |location=London |pages=105, 63 |quote=in the year of the world 3692, and 312 years before the vulgar era.... The Spanish era began with the year of the world 3966, and 38 years before the common era (p63) }} The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era and common era synonymously. |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W3xMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA50&dq=%22common+era%22 |title="common era" in 1797 EB |at=p. 50 v. 14 pt. 1 P (Paul) |quote=This happened in the 33rd year of the common era, fome time after our Saviour's death. |year=1797 |accessdate=14 December 2007 }} In 1835, in his book Living Oracles, Alexander Campbell, wrote: "The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days", and also refers to the common era as a synonym for vulgar era with "the fact that our Lord was born on the 4th year before the vulgar era, called Anno Domini, thus making (for example) the 42d year from his birth to correspond with the 38th of the common era..." The Catholic Encyclopedia uses the sentence: "Foremost among these eras is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living." During the 19th century, "Vulgar Era" came to be contrasted with "Christian Era", and "vulgar" came to mean "crudely indecent", thus no longer a synonym for "common". The phrase "common era", in lower case, also appeared in the 19th century in a generic sense, not necessarily to refer to the Christian Era, but to any system of dates in common use throughout a civilization. Thus, "the common era of the Jews", "the common era of the Mahometans", "common era of the world", |title=The Theological, Philosophical and Miscellaneous Works of the Rev. William Jones |author=William Jones |year=1801 |location=London |publisher=Rivington }} "the common era of the foundation of Rome". When it did refer to the Christian Era, it was sometimes qualified, e.g., "common era of the Incarnation", "common era of the Nativity", or "common era of the birth of Christ". |title=Annotations on the Four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles (2nd edition) |author=Heneage Elsley |year=1812 |edition=2nd |publisher=A. J. Valpy for T. Payne |location=London |page=xvi |nopp=true}} Some Jewish academics were already using the CE and BCE abbreviations by the mid-19th century, such as in 1856, when Rabbi and historian, Morris Jacob Raphall used the abbreviation in his book, Post-Biblical History of The Jews.The term common era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era lowercase does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly.

Era Vulgaris

An adapted translation of Common Era into Latin as Era Vulgaris was adopted in the 20th century by some followers of Aleister Crowley, and thus the abbreviation "e.v." or "EV" may sometimes be seen as a replacement for AD.

Usage

The terms "Common Era", "Anno Domini", "Before the Common Era" and "Before Christ" can be applied to dates that rely on either the Julian calendar or the Gregorian calendar. Modern dates are understood in the Western world to be in the Gregorian calendar, but for older dates writers should specify the calendar used. Dates in the Gregorian calendar in the Western world have always used the era designated in English as Anno Domini or Common Era, but over the millennia a wide variety of eras have been used with the Julian calendar. Although Jews have their own Hebrew calendar, they often find it necessary to use the Gregorian Calendar as well. The reasons for some using Common Era notation are described below: }} Indeed, Common Era notation has also been in use for Hebrew lessons for "more than a century". (Registration required.) Some American academics in the fields of education and history have adopted CE and BCE notation, although there is some disagreement.See, for example, the Society for Historical Archaeology states in its more recent style guide "Do not use C.E. (current era) ... or B.C.E.; convert these expressions to A.D. and B.C." . Whereas the American Anthropological Association style guide takes a different approach. The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, which is the leading publishing body of the Jehovah's Witnesses, uses CE and BCE exclusively in its publications. link link Also see, for example, comment "In this publication, instead of the traditional 'AD' and 'BC', the more accurate 'CE' (Common Era) and 'BCE' (before the Common Era) are used." in The Bible — God's Word or Man's?, p. 16 footnote, published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. More visible uses of Common Era notation have recently surfaced at major museums in the English-speaking world: The Smithsonian Institution prefers Common Era usage, though individual museums are not required to use it. Furthermore, several style guides now prefer or mandate its usage.- – Scholar search - - - Even some style guides for Christian churches prefer its use: for example, the Episcopal Diocese Maryland Church News. In the United States, the usage of the BCE/CE notation in textbooks is growing. Some publications have moved over to using it exclusively. For example, the 2007 World Almanac was the first edition to switch over to the BCE/CE usage, ending a 138-year usage of the traditional BC/AD dating notation. It is used by the College Board in its history tests, by the Norton Anthology of English Literature, and by the United States Naval Observatory. Others have taken a different approach. The US-based History Channel uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as Jerusalem and Judaism.; In June 2006, the Kentucky State School Board reversed its decision that would have included the designations BCE and CE as part of state law, leaving education of students about these concepts a matter of discretion at the local level. Communist Eastern Germany used v. u. Z. (vor unserer Zeitrechnung, before our chronology) and u. Z. (unserer Zeitrechnung, of our chronology) instead of v. Chr. (vor Christus, before Christ) and n. Chr. (nach Christus/Christi Geburt, after Christ/the Nativity of Christ). The use of the terms still differs regionally and ideologically. In Hungary, similarly to the Bulgarian case, i. e. (időszámításunk előtt, before our era) and i. sz. (időszámításunk szerint, according to our era) are still widely used instead of traditional Kr. e. (Krisztus előtt, Before Christ) and Kr. u. (Krisztus után, After Christ), which were unofficially reinstituted after the Communist period. In Poland generally the only used term is naszej ery/przed naszą erą (of our era/before our era). The terms przed Chrystusem/po Chrystusie (before Christ/after Christ) are possible but nearly never used in contemporary Poland. In Asia, the Chinese use the term " Common Era (公元)". The Japanese use seireki (西暦), which translates to "Western Calendar". The Koreans use the word Seogi (서기, 西紀), which means "Western Era" for AD/CE and Kiwonjeon (기원전, 紀元前) which is an abbreviation of Seoryok Kiwonjeon (서력기원전, 西曆紀元前) which means "Before the Origin of the Western Calendar".

Rationale

A range of arguments has been presented for the adoption of the Common Era notation. The label Anno Domini is almost certainly inaccurate; "scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before A.D. 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating." It is argued that the use of BCE/CE shows sensitivity to those who use the same year numbering system as the one that originated with and is currently used by Christians, but who are not themselves Christian. Former United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan argued, " The Christian calendar no longer belongs exclusively to Christians. People of all faiths have taken to using it simply as a matter of convenience. There is so much interaction between people of different faiths and cultures - different civilizations, if you like - that some shared way of reckoning time is a necessity. And so the Christian Era has become the Common Era." |title=Investigating Culture: An Experiential Introduction to Anthropology |page=86 |year=2004 |author=Carol Lowery Delaney |quote=I find CE a euphemism because the common era still begins with Christ's birth and,thus, conceals the political implications. |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |length=441 pages |isbn=0631222375 }} |title=Abraham on Trial: The Social Legacy of Biblical Myth |year=1998 |author=Carol Lowery Delaney |page=267 |publisher=Princeton University Press |length=352 pages |isbn=0691070504 }} English language expert Kenneth G. Wilson speculated in his style guide that "if we do end by casting aside the A.D./B.C. convention, almost certainly some will argue that we ought to cast aside as well the conventional numbering system is, the method of numbering years itself, given its Christian basis." In fact, the very short lived French Revolutionary Calendar did just that, making year one the first year of the revolution, and rejecting the seven day week (with its connections to Genesis) for a ten day week. Raimon Panikkar claims that using the designation BCE/CE is a "return... to the most bigoted Christian colonialism" and offensive to non-Christians who have not been sharing the era.Panikkar, Raimon. Christophany: The Fullness of Man (Maryville, NY: Orbis Books, 2004), 173. Some critics assert that the use of identifiers which have common spellings is more ambiguous than the use of identifiers with divergent spellings. Both C.E. and B.C.E. have in common the letters "C.E.", which is more likely to cause confusion, they claim, than identifiers with clearly different spelling.

Christian opposition

Because the BC/AD notation is based on the supposed year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, the removal of reference to him in era notation is perceived by some Christians as offensive.